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On the Identity of God in 2 Corinthians 4:6

March 10, 2026 No Comments

This entry is adapted from a longer piece that argues that New Testament authors identified Jesus as the creator of the cosmos.

In a recent entry, I argued that three New Testament authors see Jesus as the creator of the cosmos, including Paul. However, Paul also pens 2 Corinthians 4:6. Traditionally, commentators take “God” in this verse to refer to the Father. There are good reasons for doing so. Typically, when Paul says “God” in proximity to terms referring to Jesus (e.g., Jesus, Christ, Jesus Christ, the Son, etc) as a distinct person, “God” refers to the Father. For instance, “I give thanks to my God always for you because of the grace of God that was given you in Christ Jesus” (1 Corinthians 1:4). If we apply the same reasoning to 2 Corinthians 4:6, “God” will refer to the Father. This may then imply that the Father is the divine person in Genesis who says, “Let there be light,” and hence the immediate creator. Furthermore, the same divine person would be shining “the light of the knowledge of the glory of God” in human hearts by the gospel that Paul preached to the Corinthians. However, in light of the christological saturation of the passage, I shall argue that Paul’s language in 4:6 allows “God” to include Jesus and that this verse does not invalidate the conclusion that Jesus is the immediate creator of the cosmos.

We should begin with the rhetorical flourish that 4:6 is a part of:

2 Corinthians 4:4-6 ESV
In their case the god of this world has blinded the minds of the unbelievers, to keep them from seeing the light of the gospel of the glory of Christ, who is the image of God. [5] For what we proclaim is not ourselves, but Jesus Christ as Lord, with ourselves as your servants for Jesus’ sake. [6] For God, who said, “Let light shine out of darkness,” has shone in our hearts to give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ.

Unbelievers are blinded as though in a dark room because they do not have “the light of the gospel of the glory of Christ.” This “glory of Christ” is connected to “the glory of God.” These are not competing divine glories. On the contrary, the “glory of God” is revealed in Christ. Jesus’ face is the locus of divine glory. Just as Moses radiated the glory of the old covenant (2 Corinthians 3:7), the glory of God also shines in “the face of Christ Jesus.”

The first point to note is that Paul does not seem concerned about differentiating among the divine persons in these verses. While it is true that when Paul mentions Christ in proximity to God, he usually refers to the Father, this is merely a pattern not necessitated by grammar rules or logic. Paul can and often clearly adds “Father” to labels intended to pick out the Father. For example:

2 Corinthians 1:2 ESV
Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

But he does not use the paternal language in 4:4-6. Besides, Paul also uses “God” in ways that include Christ within the divine identity:

Romans 9:5 ESV
To them belong the patriarchs, and from their race, according to the flesh, is the Christ, who is God over all, blessed forever. Amen.

Philippians 2:5-6 ESV
[5] Have this mind among yourselves, which is yours in Christ Jesus, [6] who, though he was in the form of God, did not count equality with God a thing to be grasped,

These verses show that Paul can include Christ in his “God” language. So, if Paul is not concerned with differentiating divine persons in 2 Corinthians 4:6, there is no reason to press too hard for his intended referent of “God.” He could be using the term in a sense inclusive of Christ.

More importantly, notice that the focus of 4:4-6 is Christ. Hence, Jesus is “the image of God,” the one proclaimed as Lord, and the one for whom Paul and his colleagues became servants of the Corinthians. Commentators generally believe that Paul alludes to Genesis 1:3 in verse 6, but notice that the light that shone in “our hearts” is “God” himself (“God…shone in our hearts.”) But elsewhere, Paul says Jesus resides in believers’ hearts:

Ephesians 3:14-17 ESV
[14] For this reason I bow my knees before the Father, [15] from whom every family in heaven and on earth is named, [16] that according to the riches of his glory he may grant you to be strengthened with power through his Spirit in your inner being, [17] so that Christ may dwell in your hearts through faith—that you, being rooted and grounded in love,

Interestingly, Paul here clearly marks out “the Father,” but it is Christ who is said to dwell in the believer’s heart. Paul also says to the Galatians in 4:19 that it is Christ who is being formed in them. It gets even more fluid:

Romans 8:9-10 ESV
[9] You, however, are not in the flesh but in the Spirit, if in fact the Spirit of God dwells in you. Anyone who does not have the Spirit of Christ does not belong to him. [10] But if Christ is in you, although the body is dead because of sin, the Spirit is life because of righteousness.

Here, Paul uses “Spirit of God,” “Spirit of Christ,” “Spirit,” and “Christ in you” interchangeably. So, who exactly resides in a believer’s heart? For Paul, the one God of Israel does! Paul takes much liberty in describing this reality, as these texts show. So, the “God” language of 2 Corinthians 4:6 is fluid and almost certainly includes Jesus.

We have thus seen that the standard reading that “God” in 2 Corinthians 4:6 refers to the Father is itself influenced by the pervasive assumption that the Father is the creator described in Genesis. Once we question that assumption, the popular reading loses its force. Interestingly, Paul also claims that Christ is the creator in the Corinthian Correspondence:

1 Corinthians 8:5-6 ESV
[5] For although there may be so-called gods in heaven or on earth—as indeed there are many “gods” and many “lords”— [6] yet for us there is one God, the Father, from whom are all things and for whom we exist, and one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom are all things and through whom we exist.

Once again, Paul clearly distinguishes among the divine persons when necessary. Here, Paul says “all things” are from the Father and through Jesus, using a similar language to that in his letter to the Colossians. So, we may not use 2 Corinthians 4:6 to invalidate an idea Paul posits within the Corinthian correspondence and elsewhere:

Colossians 1:16 NKJV
For by Him all things were created that are in heaven and that are on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or dominions or principalities or powers. All things were created through Him and for Him.

So, the “all things” of 1 Corinthians 8:6 is all of creation.

An interesting connection with the gospel of John is worth mentioning briefly. John 3:35 says, “The Father loves the Son, and has given all things into His hand” – “all things” referring to all of creation, as John states:

John 1:1-5 ESV
[1] In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. [2] He was in the beginning with God. [3] All things were made through him, and without him was not any thing made that was made. [4] In him was life, and the life was the light of men. [5] The light shines in the darkness, and the darkness has not overcome it.

First, the Father committed “all things” to Jesus. Then, “all things” were made by and through Jesus. That is, Jesus brought “all things” into being – “and without him was not any thing made that was made.” Second, John says in Jesus was life and the life was the light of men, shining in darkness. This language is reminiscent of 2 Corinthians 4:6,

2 Corinthians 4:6 ESV
For God, who said, “Let light shine out of darkness,” has shone in our hearts to give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ.

Paul says “God…shone in our hearts,” while John says Christ is the source of light, not merely its reflector. The Johannine text enables us to see Paul’s point that “the light” is mediated by Jesus and Christologically defined. Hence, it is plausible that Jesus is the “God” in this text. In any case, nothing in 2 Corinthians 4:6 requires us to exclude Christ from the identity of the “God” who said, “Let light shine out of darkness.” If anything, Paul’s christological pattern encourages us to see Christ as the very one who spoke that primordial light into being and who now shines that same creative light into human hearts. And, given that, this verse does not threaten the conclusion that Jesus is the immediate creator described in Genesis 1.

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Rootedness in Christ

March 5, 2026 No Comments

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Jesus as the Creator

February 27, 2026 2 Comments

Three New Testament texts by different authors explicitly claim that Jesus is the creator of the cosmos. For some strange reasons I do not fully understand, many in the church have historically been uncomfortable with the claim and have found ways to blunt the force of the assertion:

John 1:1, 3, 14 ESV
[1] In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.
[3] All things were made through him, and without him was not any thing made that was made.
[14] And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us, and we have seen his glory, glory as of the only Son from the Father, full of grace and truth.

Colossians 1:15-17 ESV
[15] He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation. [16] For by him all things were created, in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or dominions or rulers or authorities—all things were created through him and for him. [17] And he is before all things, and in him all things hold together.

Hebrews 1:1-3 ESV
[1] Long ago, at many times and in many ways, God spoke to our fathers by the prophets, [2] but in these last days he has spoken to us by his Son, whom he appointed the heir of all things, through whom also he created the world. [3] He is the radiance of the glory of God and the exact imprint of his nature, and he upholds the universe by the word of his power. After making purification for sins, he sat down at the right hand of the Majesty on high,

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Who Incited David in 1 Chronicles 21:1-2 and 2 Samuel 24:1-2: God or Satan?

February 1, 2026 No Comments

This entry is adapted from a longer one here.

Consider the following texts:

2 Samuel 24:1 ESV
Again the anger of the LORD was kindled against Israel, and he incited David against them, saying, “Go, number Israel and Judah.”

1 Chronicles 21:1 NRSVUE
Satan stood up against Israel and incited David to count the people of Israel.

These texts record the same event. Yet, the first account says it was God who incited David, while the second says it was Satan. Which is it?

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A Brief Note on the End-Times

January 31, 2026 No Comments

Typically, eschatology is taught as the doctrine of end times, encompassing final things such as death, judgment, and humanity’s ultimate destiny. I had an unease with this subject and avoided it for a long time. In hindsight, I can think of reasons I did not care enough about it. First, I always had a visceral rejection of the idea of some Christians predicting when the world would end. It seems to me that even with a perfect understanding of everything the Bible says on the eschaton, we still would not be able to map out the future with precision. One reason is that if humans can figure out such things, so would devils and angels. But the Bible seems to suggest that God has not revealed such things to humans. It seems like the end will be just like the first advent:

1 Peter 1:10-12 ESV
[10] Concerning this salvation, the prophets who prophesied about the grace that was to be yours searched and inquired carefully, [11] inquiring what person or time the Spirit of Christ in them was indicating when he predicted the sufferings of Christ and the subsequent glories. [12] It was revealed to them that they were serving not themselves but you, in the things that have now been announced to you through those who preached the good news to you by the Holy Spirit sent from heaven, things into which angels long to look.

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Romans 13:1-7 and Conservative Politics

January 24, 2026 No Comments

This Pauline passage has recently come into the limelight. It is a tough one deserving of a careful wrestle. I’m not interested in the politics. My concern is about making sense of the passage within Romans and the Pauline corpus as a whole:

Romans 13:1-5 ESV
[1] Let every person be subject to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except from God, and those that exist have been instituted by God. [2] Therefore whoever resists the authorities resists what God has appointed, and those who resist will incur judgment. [3] For rulers are not a terror to good conduct, but to bad. Would you have no fear of the one who is in authority? Then do what is good, and you will receive his approval, [4] for he is God’s servant for your good. But if you do wrong, be afraid, for he does not bear the sword in vain. For he is the servant of God, an avenger who carries out God’s wrath on the wrongdoer. [5] Therefore one must be in subjection, not only to avoid God’s wrath but also for the sake of conscience.

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Web of Beliefs

January 22, 2026 No Comments

This is one of the introductory ideas I included in the curriculum I designed for a local church. I firmly believe that we ought to pay more attention to it.

I am no arachnologist, but it’s my understanding that the center of a spider web is functionally the most essential part of the structure. It’s critical for directing the structure’s geometry and for sensing vibrations. Every part of the web is important, but not equally so. As you travel radially outwards from the center, functional importance reduces. This is instructive by analogy: If we could empty people’s cherished beliefs into buckets – and every human has them – we would see that people do not exactly believe the same things in the same way.

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On Romans 10:17: Faith Comes By Hearing?

January 16, 2026 No Comments

Romans 10:17 NKJV
So then faith comes by hearing, and hearing by the word of God.

This is a popular text in Charismatic circles, especially the Word of Faith variants. In these settings, this text is generally understood as a divinely revealed secret of receiving and/or maintaining faith. If anyone lacked faith, an antidote would be to listen to the “word of God” continuously. There are two practical ways the “word of God” has been construed. In the days before audio Bibles became prevalent, the word of God was generally understood as a preacher’s sermon or his recorded reading of Bible passages. Nowadays, however, people are just encouraged to listen to audio Bibles and sermons. I do not want to invalidate this Charismatic practice, even though I have seen it abused. After all, motivational speakers have convinced us all that there is value in attending to positive speaking. However, I am convinced that this text is not about what some Charismatics have turned it into – a pretext for telling the people to return to hear a preacher’s sermon continually.

We should begin by pointing out some known problems with this text. First, some manuscripts say “the word of Christ” instead of “the word of God.” This, however, is arguably a trivial matter, since many New Testament texts slot Jesus into God’s place. It may serve as further evidence of how early Christians saw Jesus as God. Second, Romans 9-11 are probably the most hotly contested parts of the letter, with various interpretations on offer. In this piece, I shall argue that it is best to see Romans 10:17 as a conclusion of the idea begun in Romans 10:14 and that Romans 10:14-17 is itself a unit within the argument Paul crafts in 10:14-11:6.

We should inquire what Paul meant by “faith comes by hearing.” What sort of faith did he have in mind, and did he mean to say that faith unfailingly accompanies hearing the gospel message? It is unlikely that he meant to say faith always follows after hearing the gospel for two reasons. First, Paul was present when Stephen gave the longest and most comprehensive gospel sermon. Paul heard the message about Jesus, yet did not obtain faith. On the contrary, he walked away angry and approved of the death of the preacher. In fact, it was a post-resurrection appearance of Jesus on the road to Damascus that led Paul to faith. Charismatics are generally reluctant to allow experience to play a corrective role in a believer’s theology, and this is not utterly unreasonable. However, it must be said that a robust and comprehensive sermon did not save Saul of Tarsus; an experience of the divine did. When he finally did, as a trained Pharisee with deep knowledge of Scripture, he did not delay in boldly proclaiming that Jesus is the Lord. This is why Paul says he did not receive the gospel from any human, as we explored elsewhere. Second, Paul also discusses the thorny issue of many Israelites in his day not believing the gospel (10:16). This strongly suggests that the “faith” Paul had in mind is saving faith; the faith that turns unbelievers to believers. Paul says his fellow Israelites heard the message:

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The Gospel without Torah is a Non-archored Half-Truth: An Example from Matthew 12

November 28, 2025 No Comments

I recently learnt that the church did not pay attention to the Gospel of Mark for centuries because it assumed that Mark was merely an abbreviated version of Matthew. This caused my mind to entertain several thoughts. Could it be, for instance, that after over 2000 years, we still may be deficient in our understanding of the faith? Consider the following passage:

Matthew 12:1-8 ESV
[1] At that time Jesus went through the grainfields on the Sabbath. His disciples were hungry, and they began to pluck heads of grain and to eat. [2] But when the Pharisees saw it, they said to him, “Look, your disciples are doing what is not lawful to do on the Sabbath.” [3] He said to them, “Have you not read what David did when he was hungry, and those who were with him: [4] how he entered the house of God and ate the bread of the Presence, which it was not lawful for him to eat nor for those who were with him, but only for the priests? [5] Or have you not read in the Law how on the Sabbath the priests in the temple profane the Sabbath and are guiltless? [6] I tell you, something greater than the temple is here. [7] And if you had known what this means, ‘I desire mercy, and not sacrifice,’ you would not have condemned the guiltless. [8] For the Son of Man is lord of the Sabbath.”

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An Exegetical Proposal for Understanding Ephesians 2:20 and 3:5

October 1, 2025 2 Comments

Ephesians 2:19-20 ESV
[19] So then you are no longer strangers and aliens, but you are fellow citizens with the saints and members of the household of God, [20] built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Christ Jesus himself being the cornerstone,

Earlier, I wrote on some matters arising from the way we have often described the fivefold ministry gifts. A central argument of that piece is that the Bible’s uses of these terms – apostle, prophet, evangelist, pastor, and teacher – are not as rigid as many modern church sermons suggest. On the contrary, these gifts seemed to be mutable roles God empowered believers to perform. In this piece, my focus is slightly different, although it remains on the ministry gifts.

As I have written in a few blog entries, Paul, our chief source on the ministry gifts, connects Jesus’ giving of the gifts to the conquest of Bashan and Hades, long-term foes of Yahweh, through his death, resurrection, and ascension. It was in that context that Paul says ministry gifts were given:

Ephesians 4:11-14 NRSV
[11] The gifts he gave were that some would be apostles, some prophets, some evangelists, some pastors and teachers, [12] to equip the saints for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ, [13] until all of us come to the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the Son of God, to maturity, to the measure of the full stature of Christ. [14] We must no longer be children, tossed to and fro and blown about by every wind of doctrine, by people’s trickery, by their craftiness in deceitful scheming.

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